The Development Of Pretty As An Intensifier English Language Essay

The Development Of Pretty As An Intensifier English Language Essay It is commonly acknowledged that the first thought about the definition of pretty is good-looking as an adjective when it is discussed; nevertheless, when this word is searched with ICE-GB, merely 20 instances are found as an adjective whereas 112 examples are adverbs, the frequency of which is nearly five times higher. This result is similar to the other corpora, such as British National Corpus with the frequency of 55.60 per million words as an adjective while 118.17 per million words as an adverb in the year of 2000. Accordingly, the lexicon pretty is normally used as an adverb rather than an adjective. What increases the adverbial usage of pretty? This essay is going to analyze the progress of the word pretty as an intensifier or a downtowner through the corpus of ICE-GB. First of all, the meaning of intensifiers or downtoners will be defined, followed by the historical alteration of pretty, and the way of grammaticalization. After that, collocations and meaning scales are also w orth discussing. In the final part, the number of examples in spoken and written registers will be explained. Intensifiers and downtoners are semantically categorized as modifiers or degree words, which are traditionally under the classes of adjective and adverb. Syntactically, modifiers control elemental level rather than clausal level (Nevalainen and Rissanen, 2002: 361). This indicates intensifiers and downtoners to some extent vary the degree of the word that they modify. As defined by Biber (1999: 554-555), intensifiers enhance the degrees of the word on a scale, but downtoners decrease the scale on the gradable items. Moreover, although Bolinger (1972: 17) does not distinguish the difference between these two, he still calls degree words as intensifiers and divides them into four classes based on the scalar region: boosters, compromisers, diminishers, and minimizers, which are from higher level to the lower part of the scale. This completely shows that there must be a scale among modifiers, which amplify or lessen the words that they modify. Backlund (1973: 69) states that pretty is a moderate degree adverb because it uses a weak statement to reinforce a positive meaning into the word that it modifies. The point of view is similar to the idea of a scale among modifiers, since moderate degree adverbs also increase or decrease the degree of modified words; that is to say, I can employ Bolingers idea to consider pretty as an intensifier, to be more specific, compromisers. Pretty as an intensifier modifies the adjectives because it shows the middle scale of the adverbs: It was quite pretty stimulating stuff and I really enjoyed it. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦theyre you know pretty experienced counsellors. Its actually a pretty outstanding game so far. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦which was pretty obvious to most observers by this time,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Pretty also modifies the adjectives: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦your first degree has got to relate pretty closely if youre going to get on a course in most cases. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦then one comes down pretty squarely in the period before priests and Levites were separated. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦you saw last week we can date pretty exactly in the late sixth century. I mean the the Tories started pretty messily. The word pretty, according to Nevalainen, and Rissanen (2002: 367), can be traced back to Old English as a form of prà ¦ttig with merely 10 instances, and mostly means cunning or cleverness in negative contexts. In Middle English period, the meaning of pretty extends into three categories: (1) cunning, and clever, (2) manly, fine; fair-sized, considerable, great; of a beating, and (3) handsome; elegant; enjoyable and pleasant, which Nevalainen and Rissanen claim that the development of the adverb pretty originates from the definition: fair-sized, considerable , and great (2002: 308). Furthermore, they also point out that although none of the examples show the use of pretty as an adverb in fifteenth century, historically, pretty or prettily starts to be adverb in the fifteenth century. Seventeenth century sees a significant increase in the number of instances of pretty as an adverb, which suggests that the intensifier meaning of pretty is gradually developing, and from the examples t hat Nevalainen and Rissanen exploit, pretty and very seem to be interchangeable (2002:309). The following instances taken from ICE-GB demonstrate very is the synonym of pretty: This loss of heat would pretty soon lead to its reaching a very cold temperatureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. I hope, pretty briefly because this has been a short case. The first three lines are pretty easy really, Its pretty hard to park there anyway. Later on, in the nineteenth century positive ideas are conveyed by the usage of pretty, which is found to modify adjectives and adverbs (Backlund 1973: 133). If pretty is considered to be an intensifier, it may have undergone a process of functional shift, (Biscetti, 2006 :62) which means the procedure of intensifier forming is related to semantic feature copying, which is established by Lorenz in 2002. This refers to the fact that pretty becomes an intensifier through connecting the adjacent lexicon which has similar meaning. Therefore, Nevalainen and Risssanens idea about the origin of pretty as an adverb can be applied to examine the forming of intensifiers. Thats pretty good. [great] I think they did pretty well to get to end up like that. [great] These two examples seem to represent that pretty pre-modifies its similar words, good and well, in the meaning of great. However, they cannot represent the whole conversion because these two words are the high frequency lexica that pretty collocates with in ICE-GB with thirteen and six times respectively. The other highly collocating examples found in ICE-GB do not show the semantic feature copying: I am pretty sure that it is actuallyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. It is uh pretty quick. If functional shift or semantic feature copying cannot completely explain the change of pretty, there are some other reasons. According to Mendez-Naya (2003: 372), intensifiers can be said to undergo a process of grammaticalization, on account of the fact that the function of a grammatical form are generated by the gradual loss of lexical idiosyncrasy. In addition, Ito (2003: 261) also points out delexicalization, which is a procedure of grammaticalization, and elucidates the intensifiers as a lexicon that the speakers comment or evaluation towards the word they want to express. Then, five stages are further illustrated from (a) original meaning, (b) expressing emphasis, (c) affirming truth of modified words, (d) attributive adjectives, to (e) intensification without the original meaning. Some instances are found in ICE-GB: (17a) It was actually really pretty. (17b) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦its in a quiet three-lined street filled with pretty houses,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (17c) I am pretty sure of that. (17d) Apparently thats a pretty good idea. (17e) You were pretty stroppy then. Pretty in (17a) is an adjective to show the original definition of pretty either in three of them in Middle English Dictionary. (17b) contains an adjective pretty as well, but it shows the highlighting of the word houses, and it to some extent weakens its other original meaning, such as clever. Pretty in (17c) enhances the sureness of the speaker, while in (17d) it becomes the attributive adjectives and modifies either good or idea. Pretty in both (17c) and (17d) still possess some meaning of great itself, while in (17e) it is purely an intensifier in view of the fact that pretty can straightforwardly be considered as its synonym very. These instances manifest the grammaticalization and make pretty seem to experience semantic shift. Apart from grammaticalization, the frequency of collocation that pretty has also interests the discussion value. There are eighty-four examples of adjectives that pretty modifies in ICE-GB. The first one and two are good and sure, which have thirteen and four examples respectively. Big, busy, and quick have three instances for each, and difficult, hard, impressive, low, slow, strong only have two examples. Backlunds (1973: 134) states that pretty primarily combines with positive or neutral words, and occasionally, with negative words to express irony. This is perhaps due to the reason that pretty as an intensifier does not amplify or attenuate the gradable word up to the top of the scale or down to the bottom. It is interesting to notice that good is a positive word which is the highest tendency word to collocate with pretty, followed by sure, big, busy, and quick, the neutral words. The negative words that pretty collocates in ICE-GB are bad, dreary, grim, sad, wrecked, and stroppy, which only have one example. On the other hand, the adverbs that pretty modifies are six examples of well, two examples of quickly, and the others briefly, closely, exactly, high, messily, seriously, soon, sort of, and squarely. Similarly, there is a tendency for pretty to collocate with well, a positive word. The meaning scale of pretty as an adverb is categorized by Backlund (1973: 134-143) into (i) lowering the emotional level, (ii) lowering criticism, (iii) function of weak statement, (iv) degree modifier, (v) expression of phrasal, (vi) self-compliment, and (vii) front-position. (18i) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I suspect thats a pretty daunting record,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (18ii) Yeah I mean hes a pretty normal boy. (18iii) So I imagine you have pretty strict regulations concerning its us. (18iv) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it would have been pretty well impossible to get in without a key. (18v) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦your memory was pretty good basically, and this wasnt a problem. (18vi) Ive had a very uhm pretty straightforward sort of a life Im afraid. (18vii) Pretty much yeah Ive got to admit. The sentimental word daunting in (18i) is brought down by pretty because if this instance expressed without pretty, then it will be an explicit expression, showing the record is intimidating. In (18ii), pretty produces the idea that the interlocutor does not concern the thing he or she states, while pretty in (18iii) weakens the degree of strict, making the example sound euphemistic. Example (18iv) is more interesting because pretty modifies not only well but also the adjective impossible. The reason is based on the x schema (Santorini and Kroch, 2007): pretty dominates the following well and impossible in the phrase pretty well impossible. Examples (18v) and (18vi) manifest positive thoughts of the expresser, and these two instances are the evidence of the fact that pretty are likely to collocate with positive and neutral lexical. Front-position, as Backlund (1973: 143) claims, only occurs in the beginning of a full sentence, or can be recovered by the eliminated components, that is or it is. Hence, (18vii) can be uttered as Its pretty much. Yeah, Ive got to admit. So far, the thing that has not been discussed is the instances pretty much, which appears in ICE-GB eight times. According to Backlund (1973: 138), pretty much can be regarded as almost since much gains the implication of almost and nearly from the phrase pretty much the same, and pretty is often excluded. (19) I was pretty much advanced on the delegates. Likewise, pretty well comprises a similar sense almost as pretty much, but it also contains hesitance and reservation in the utterance (Backlund, 1973: 140). (20) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦those percentages were pretty well reversed. Although Bolinger (1972: 215-217) asserts that when pretty much is used as a pre-modifier, it is a type of fusion, and it becomes a sentence modifier with the less restrictions of connecting verbs, no instances can be found in ICE-GB. Finally, there are 134 instances that can be found in ICE-GB, and 20 of them are written registers while the others are spoken ones. This implies that pretty used as an intensifier is still rare in written works, just as Gonzalez-Diaz (2008: 233) claims that verbal situations are the initial stage that language change happens, and later written language is influenced if speakers have created the innovation. In conclusion, pretty has experienced the language change from pure adjective clever to polysemy, and one of its meaning belongs to a modifier. Grammaticalization and the frequent collocations that pretty use may be the causes of the transformation. When people are inclined to utter the pattern of expression, the expression will gradually fixed, consequently leading to the novel usage of the word. That is the reason why there are some analogous meanings between pretty much and pretty well, even though pretty is considered as an intensifier. Overall, no matter how pretty develops, intensification is the linguistic expression of exaggeration and depreciation. (Bolinger, 1972: 20) Totall: 2050

Afternoons by Philip Larkin Essay -- English Literature

Afternoons by Philip Larkin. A poem which reflects on the subject of marriage is 'Afternoons' by Philip Larkin. The poem deals with Larkin's view on young mothers watching their kids playing in a playground and on this he concludes that marrying young and having children young, lead to the mothers losing their identity and destiny. The techniques used by the poet such as theme, imagery and tone deepened my understanding of the issue. The structure of the poem is simple; there are three stanzas with eight lines in each. However, unlike every other poem by Larkin this layout has no direct meaning. The lines are unrhymed. The first stanza deals with Larkin's rather cynical view of marriage and deals with the idea that the young mothers are isolated. Larkin's brilliant use of language emphasis the recurring theme of emptiness within the young mothers and how regimented their lives have become; 'In the hollows of afternoons' and 'young mothers assemble'. In the second stanza Larkin moves from the general view into the individual and describes the mother as belonging to a middle class background. Their husbands are described as working in 'skilled trades' and being 'behind them'. The husbands are not literally standing behind the women but are metaphorically. They provide support financially, emotionally and phycologically. On a closer inspection of the poem we realise Larkin has taken an everyday situation and made a universal message out of it. The image of the mothers life being dull is further emphasised when Larkin describes the 'Wedding Album' being near the television. This image suggests that the televsion is more of a central concern in the couples lives rather than their marriage vows etc. ... ...heir identity and are dominated by responsibility, they have lost control of what is truly their own. 'something is pushing them to the side of their lives'. The poem 'Afternoons' by Philip Larkin made me think considerably about having children young especially at my age, 17. The idea that Larkin portrays, that young parents, in particular young mothers lose control of their lives as soon as they have a child. Personally I believe that Larkin's message is made more effective and memorable because he tells it in a very simplistic manner in which the reader can clearly understand. However, Larkin likes the reader to be challenged and tells his ideas via a very implicit manner. His use of theme, imagery and tone deepened my understanding of the issue and I believe the poem provides a great thinking point to any young teenagers considering having children.

Psy 240 Appendix C

There are four stages of sleep, stage 1 occurs when the person decides it’s time to fall asleep. Initially in stage 1 alpha waves start waxing and waning bursts of 8-12 Hz’s EEG. This is when we are alert at our wake fullness. Stage one sleep RRG is low voltage but high frequency signal. As the stages progress into stage 2 there’s a gradual increase in EEG voltage and decrease in EEG frequency. Stage 2 has a higher amplitude and lower frequency and also has two wave forms, k complexes and sleep spindles.Stage 3 is Delta waves, which are the largest and slowest EEG waves. Stage 4 is essentially the predominance of delta waves. Throughout the night the body goes through these 4 stages numerous times. It is a continuous cycle until the body fully awakes. Stage one is also the REM sleep stage and is where a person dreams. There are five common belies of dreams the first being, that external stimuli can become incorporated into dreams. Second, dreams last only an inst ant. Third, some people claim that they do not dream.Fourth, penile erections are assumed to be related to sexual dreams. And lastly, sleepwalking and sleep talking occur only when dreaming. There are two theories related to dreams, the first being Freud’s theory. He believes that dreams are triggered by unacceptable repressed wishes, often of a sexual nature. The second is activation synthesis theory of Hobson’s, he believed that during REM sleep many brain stem circuits become active and bombard the cerebral cortex with neural signals.He believes that a dream is the cerebral cortex’s way of taking all the random thoughts and making sense of them all. I agree with Hobson, I believe that all the random events throughout the day put together the dream. Freud’s theory does not seem legitimate to me because not everyone has negative or unacceptable wishes nor is every dream a sexual. More often than not my dreams comprise of random and often times very confu sing acts. Thus is the reason why I agree with Hobson.

What I Learned About Sex, Social Work And Sociology

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Love in William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay

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Theoneyourlookingfor Essay Example For Students

Theoneyourlookingfor Essay Computer HackerThe meaning of Hacker is one who accesses a computer which is supposably not able to be accessed to non authorised people of the community. Hackers may use any type of system to access this information depending on what they intend on doing in the system. MethodsHackers may use a variety of ways to hack into a system. First if the hacker is experienced and smart the hacker will use telnet to access a shell on another machine so that the risk of getting caught is lower than doing it using their own system. Ways in which the hacker will break into the system are:1) Guess/cracking passwords. This is where the hacker takes guesses at the password or has a crack program to crack the password protecting the system. 2) Finding back doors is another way in which the hacker may get access to the system. This is where the hacker tries to find flaws in the system they are trying to enter. 3) One other way in which a hacker may try to get into a system is by using a program called a WORM. This program is specially programmed to suit the need of the user. This programme continually tries to connect to a machine at over 100 times a second until eventually the system lets in and the worm executes its program. The program could be anything from getting password files to deleting files depending on what it has been programmed to do. ProtectionThe only way that you or a company can stop a Hacker is by not having your computer connected to the net. This is the only sure fire way in which you can stop a hacker entering your system. This is mainly because hackers use a phone line to access the system. If it is possible for one person to access the system then it is possible for a hacker to gain access to the system. One of the main problems is that major companies need to be networked and accessible over the net so that employees can do overdue work or so that people can look up things on that company. Also major companies network their offices so that they can access data from different positions. One way which is used to try to prevent hackers gaining access is a program used by companies called a Firewall. A Firewall is a program which stops other connections from different servers to the firewall server. This is very effective in stopping hackers entering the system. Tho this is not a fool proof way of stopping hackers as it can be broken and hackers can get in. Tho this is a very good way of protecting your system on the InterNet. Major Hacks Some of the major hacks that have been committed have been done by young teens aged between 14 and 18. These computer geniuses as they are known have expert knowledge on what they are doing and also know the consequences. Tho the consequences do not really enter there mind when they are doing it. This hack occurred on February 10, 1997, and again on February 14, 1997 Portuguese hackers launched a political attack on the web page of the Indonesian government, focusing on that countrys continued oppression of East Timor. The attack was online for about 3 hours from 7.00 PM to 10.00 PM (Portuguese Time) at the web site of the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Indonesia. The hackers did not delete or change anything. The said We just hack pages. Another major hack that occurred was on April 1 1981 by a single user. This hacker who was situated in an east coast brokage house was interested in the stock market. SO he purchased $100,000 worth of shares in the stock market. Then he hacked into the stock markets main computers and stole $80 million dollars. The hacker was eventually caught although $53 million dollars was not recovered. .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 , .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .postImageUrl , .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 , .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:hover , .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:visited , .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:active { border:0!important; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:active , .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90 .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ubc2558f6ef88ecf71405382e887f2f90:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Business Ethics EssayOn Wednesday, March 5 1997 The home page of the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations was recently hacked and the contents changed. The group known as H4G1S. This group of hackers managed to change the contents of the webpage The hacking group changed the webpage and left a little message for all. It said Gr33t1ngs fr0m th3 m3mb3rs 0f H4G1S. Our mission is to continue where our colleagues the ILF left off. During the next month, we the members of H4G1S, will be launching an attack on corporate America. All who profit from the misuse of the InterNet will fall victim to our upcoming reign of digital terrorism. Our privileged and highly skilled members will stop at nothing until our presence is felt nationwide. Even your most sophisticated firewalls are useless. We will demonstrate this in the upcoming weeks. The homepage of the United States Air Force was recently hacked and the contents had been changed. The webpage had been changed completely as the hackers had inserted pornographic pictures saying this is what we are doing to you and had under the image screwing you. The hackers have changed it and shown their views on the political system. One other major hack which was committed was by a 16 year old boy in Europe. This boy hacked into the British Airforce and downloaded confidential information on Ballistic missiles. The boy hacked into the site and down loaded this information because he was interested and wanted to know more about them. This boy was fined a sum of money. In conclusion it can be said that hackers are sophisticated and very talented when it comes to the use of a computer. Hacking is a process of learning not following any manual. Hackers learn as they go and use a method of trial and error. Most people who say they are hackers most of the time are not. Real hackers do not delete or destroy any information on the system they hack. Hackers hack because they love the thrill of getting into a system that is supposably unable to be entered. Overall hackers are smart and cause little damage to the system they enter. So hackers are not really terrorists in a way they help companies find out flaws in their sy stem. Words/ Pages : 1,038 / 24